In May 1897 some native units of the British army in India rose in a mutiny that was to last until 1859. Known to the British as the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, these two years of blood and strife marked a crossroads in the history of the British in India and are regarded by some as the beginnings of Indian nationalism. What led to the mutiny and its consequences are described below.
British rule in India began in 1757 following Sir Robert Clive's victory over the combined forces of the French and the Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. The Government ruled their new conquest vicariously through the East India Company. It was the beginning of nearly two hundred years of imperial domination.
The Company had almost carte blanche to do as it pleased provided it was profitable. It was free to raise its own army bolstered by a relatively small number of Crown troops. Company rule resulted in dissatisfaction among the local people and economic exploitation of the country.
The situation was aggravated by the appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General in 1848. He had a vision of transforming India into a modern country with roads and railways and progressive laws, but he seemingly had little regard for local traditions. In his eight years in office, he was highly successful but it was these very policies that were to act as the catalyst for the events of 1857.
The Indian people suffered considerable economic exploitation. Craftsmen and artisans lost business as cheap imports from Britain flooded the marketplace making life extremely difficult. And no one could avoid the massive financial burden that was caused by the tariffs and taxes imposed by the Company.
Two policies aggravated the ruling classes in particular. The Doctrine of Lapse meant that only the natural descendants of the Indian ruling classes could assume their rank. Adopted children could retain the family wealth but not the role of ruler. There was also the Subsidiary Alliance. Rulers had to submit to an agreement to allow Company troops to be stationed on their territory and finance them. The Company was to be acknowledged as the supreme ruling power with any failure to pay certain dues would result in the forfeiture of land to the Company.
Social reforms were also a point of contention. Allowing widows to remarry, the education of women and the abolition of sati (the cremation of widows with their husbands) caused suspicion and resentment. Local people also felt that their religion was under threat from the activities of Christian missionaries, leading them to unite against a common enemy.
Discontent was also rampant in some military units. Local soldiers received less pay, had little prospect of promotion and were treated poorly by some of their British comrades. They were also angered because they were not permitted to wear traditional marks indicating their caste or sect.
The stage was set for revolt. The spark proved to be the cartridge for the new Enfield rifle. It had a paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. Unfortunately, it was coated in grease made from pig and cow fat, which was offensive to Hindus and Muslims. Vegetable fat replaced the animal fat but it was too late.
In March 1857 a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry by the name of Mangal Pandey refused to handle the cartridges and attacked his British officers. Breaking free from Indian soldiers who tried to restrain him, he shot himself. The wound was not fatal but he was quickly executed for his mutinous conduct.
In April, soldiers in the garrison at Meerut received severe punishment for similar refusal to use the cartridges. Quickly imprisoned, they were by their comrades who killed a number of British officers. On 11 May, the troops advanced on Delhi, capturing the city with little difficulty and installed a former Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of India.
The British were slow to respond and the scene was set for bitter conflict across the north of India. There were atrocities on both sides, the most infamous being the butchering in very unclear circumstances of over a hundred captive British women and children at Cawnpore (modern Kanpur) by forces commanded by Nana Sahib, who had been dispossessed under the Doctrine of Lapse. The British were eventually able to regroup and with the help of loyal native forces and reinforcements from overseas were able to put down the mutiny. But the face of India was to be forever changed.
Victory for the British was at no time really in doubt. Only northern India felt the full force of the mutiny and, nationwide, the majority of Indian troops remained completely loyal. Furthermore, the rebels labored under a disjointed leadership and were hampered by infighting and conflicting ideas on their ultimate objectives.
With India once more at peace, the British Government in London took control of the country from the East India Company. Larger numbers of Crown troops were posted to India and comparative numbers of native troops were restricted. The policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were removed. In addition, the sensibilities of all Indians were recognized as guarantees to protect their religions and traditions were implemented.
The old principalities were eventually merged and Indians were given greater opportunities to contribute to the government of their country. There were improvements in communications and education and the country was slowly modernized. But the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 had one other major significance - it was the catalyst for Indian nationalism that was eventually to lead to independence ninety years later in 1947.
British rule in India began in 1757 following Sir Robert Clive's victory over the combined forces of the French and the Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. The Government ruled their new conquest vicariously through the East India Company. It was the beginning of nearly two hundred years of imperial domination.
The Company had almost carte blanche to do as it pleased provided it was profitable. It was free to raise its own army bolstered by a relatively small number of Crown troops. Company rule resulted in dissatisfaction among the local people and economic exploitation of the country.
The situation was aggravated by the appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General in 1848. He had a vision of transforming India into a modern country with roads and railways and progressive laws, but he seemingly had little regard for local traditions. In his eight years in office, he was highly successful but it was these very policies that were to act as the catalyst for the events of 1857.
The Indian people suffered considerable economic exploitation. Craftsmen and artisans lost business as cheap imports from Britain flooded the marketplace making life extremely difficult. And no one could avoid the massive financial burden that was caused by the tariffs and taxes imposed by the Company.
Two policies aggravated the ruling classes in particular. The Doctrine of Lapse meant that only the natural descendants of the Indian ruling classes could assume their rank. Adopted children could retain the family wealth but not the role of ruler. There was also the Subsidiary Alliance. Rulers had to submit to an agreement to allow Company troops to be stationed on their territory and finance them. The Company was to be acknowledged as the supreme ruling power with any failure to pay certain dues would result in the forfeiture of land to the Company.
Social reforms were also a point of contention. Allowing widows to remarry, the education of women and the abolition of sati (the cremation of widows with their husbands) caused suspicion and resentment. Local people also felt that their religion was under threat from the activities of Christian missionaries, leading them to unite against a common enemy.
Discontent was also rampant in some military units. Local soldiers received less pay, had little prospect of promotion and were treated poorly by some of their British comrades. They were also angered because they were not permitted to wear traditional marks indicating their caste or sect.
The stage was set for revolt. The spark proved to be the cartridge for the new Enfield rifle. It had a paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. Unfortunately, it was coated in grease made from pig and cow fat, which was offensive to Hindus and Muslims. Vegetable fat replaced the animal fat but it was too late.
In March 1857 a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry by the name of Mangal Pandey refused to handle the cartridges and attacked his British officers. Breaking free from Indian soldiers who tried to restrain him, he shot himself. The wound was not fatal but he was quickly executed for his mutinous conduct.
In April, soldiers in the garrison at Meerut received severe punishment for similar refusal to use the cartridges. Quickly imprisoned, they were by their comrades who killed a number of British officers. On 11 May, the troops advanced on Delhi, capturing the city with little difficulty and installed a former Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of India.
The British were slow to respond and the scene was set for bitter conflict across the north of India. There were atrocities on both sides, the most infamous being the butchering in very unclear circumstances of over a hundred captive British women and children at Cawnpore (modern Kanpur) by forces commanded by Nana Sahib, who had been dispossessed under the Doctrine of Lapse. The British were eventually able to regroup and with the help of loyal native forces and reinforcements from overseas were able to put down the mutiny. But the face of India was to be forever changed.
Victory for the British was at no time really in doubt. Only northern India felt the full force of the mutiny and, nationwide, the majority of Indian troops remained completely loyal. Furthermore, the rebels labored under a disjointed leadership and were hampered by infighting and conflicting ideas on their ultimate objectives.
With India once more at peace, the British Government in London took control of the country from the East India Company. Larger numbers of Crown troops were posted to India and comparative numbers of native troops were restricted. The policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were removed. In addition, the sensibilities of all Indians were recognized as guarantees to protect their religions and traditions were implemented.
The old principalities were eventually merged and Indians were given greater opportunities to contribute to the government of their country. There were improvements in communications and education and the country was slowly modernized. But the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 had one other major significance - it was the catalyst for Indian nationalism that was eventually to lead to independence ninety years later in 1947.
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